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Exam 9: Joseph Butler

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Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, no one does unprovoked mischief to another for its own sake.

A) True
B) False

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Question 22

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Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -In Butler's view, injustice is caused by:

A) desires for external goods.
B) love of injustice.
C) ill-will toward others.
D) self-hatred.

E) None of the above
F) A) and B)

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Question 23

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Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, there is no incompatibility between self-love and benevolence.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that nothing can be of consequence to mankind, or any creature, but happiness.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, it is impossible to:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -The percept to love and forgive those who injure us forbids feeling indignation and resentment toward them.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -What is human nature according to Butler? From what principles do our actions arise? For what end are we naturally designed? Do you find his account of human nature plausible? Why or why not?

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, what is the relationship between benevolence and self-love? How does he argue for his view of the matter? Do you agree with him? ​

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -In Butler's view, acting naturally is simply acting on one's strongest inclination.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -What different interpretations of the scriptural command to "love your neighbor as yourself" does Butler discuss? Which does he decide is the correct interpretation, and why? What implications does this principle have for our actions, according to Butler?

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, people often fail to live up to their nature because of the pursuit of present gratification.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, the selfish theory fails to distinguish between: